Dog paws and shoes — C. difficile household dissemination
Household study of paws and shoes; useful for transfer questions, not for estimating universal risk.
EVIDENCE AND CRITERIA
Evidence Library
Scientific sources, standards and guidance cited in HYGEN KLINX insights.
Studies on paws and soles, indoor contaminants and entrance design requirements. Each reference identifies the topic studied and the setting to which it applies.
PET / PAWS
Assistance-dog paws vs users’ shoe soles
Pilot study supporting caution: in that sample, paws were generally less contaminated than shoe soles.
AKC — Dog paw care and cleaning
Practical guidance on paw care and animal-appropriate cleaning.
VCA — Winter paw safety
Veterinary guidance on road salt, de-icers and residue removal.
CDC — Urine and environmental contamination
Urine from infected animals can contaminate water and soil with Leptospira. The source describes that setting and does not establish household infection through soles or paws.
Sitarik et al., 2018 — Dog introduction alters the home dust microbiota
Longitudinal study of families introducing a dog and changes in house-dust microbiota.
Dog keeping and indoor dust microbiota, 2021
Comparison of dog and non-dog homes across Finnish and German cohorts, with differences mainly in bacterial communities.
Dog keeping, home microbiota and children’s health, 2026
Study of associations between dog-related microbial signals and selected child health outcomes.
Reynolds et al., 1994 — Dogs and 2,4-D-treated lawns
Measures urinary 2,4-D after potential exposure to treated lawns; documents exposure, not a clinical outcome.
Knapp et al., 2013 — Herbicides, grass residues and dog urine
Measures dislodgeable grass residues and multiple herbicides in dog urine after household lawn applications.
FOOTWEAR / INDOOR
Systematic review — shoe soles as a vector
Review of organisms on shoe soles and decontamination strategies; no consistently effective method was identified in the studies included in 2016.
Review — floors and shoes in healthcare settings
Evidence mainly from healthcare/controlled settings: useful for dissemination potential, not automatically transferable to homes.
Shoe-sole dust and airborne microbiome
Study of shoe-sole dust contribution to the airborne microbiome in its experimental setting.
US EPA — Indoor Microbiome
General context on indoor microbial flows and multiple environmental sources.
Nishioka et al. — 2,4-D and household transfer
A 2001 study of 11 occupied and two unoccupied homes after lawn applications. Documents indoor residue and the role of footwear and animals under those conditions.
Guo et al. — Viral material on surfaces and soles in hospital
A 2020 study in COVID-19 wards: PCR detection of genetic material, including on soles. Does not measure infectious virus or establish household infection through footwear.
US EPA — Pesticides indoors
Identifies contaminated soil and dust tracked in from outdoors among possible sources of indoor residue. Does not attribute every household contaminant to footwear.
Tian et al., 2014 — Walking-induced dust resuspension
Comparative study of flooring, humidity, surface dust loading and particle size.
Hunt et al., 2006 — Soil transfer indoors by footwear
Experiments on dry and wet soil deposition from footwear to indoor hard flooring and spread after repeated tracking.
Taylor et al., 2022 — Trace metals in house dust and outdoor soil
Study of sources and pathways for arsenic, chromium, copper, manganese, lead and zinc in Sydney homes.
US EPA — Pesticides and indoor air quality
Overview of indoor pesticide sources, including contaminated soil or dust that can be tracked indoors.
US EPA — Indoor particulate matter and dust
Describes sources of indoor dust, resuspension and differences in exposure between children and adults.
Fahlbusch et al., 2000 — Grass pollen allergens in house dust
Detects pollen allergens in indoor dust and identifies footwear and clothing as possible transport routes.
Boehm et al., 2014 — Particle transfer between footwear and floors
Experiments measuring particle pickup and release during foot traffic.
Layton & Beamer, 2009 — Soil, outdoor air and house dust
Framework separating soil track-in, outdoor-air infiltration and organic matter in indoor dust.
Morgan et al., 2019 — Loss and replacement of particles on footwear
Shows how rapidly mineral particles can be replaced during successive steps.
BUILDING / ENTRYWAY
LEED v4.1 — Entryway Systems
Requires permanent entryway systems at least 10 ft / 3 m long to capture dirt and particulates in applicable projects.
WELL v1 — Healthy Entrance
Historical WELL v1 reference for entrance pollutant control; the page is a legacy standard version.
US EPA — IAQ Design Tools for Schools
Design guidance on entry mat barriers and controlling pollutants and dirt tracked indoors.
US EPA — Multifamily building guidance
Context for multifamily entrances and management of tracked-in material.
Hambraeus et al., 1984 — Footwear-change location and floor contamination
Healthcare study in which the contamination peak moved with the footwear-change zone.